in search of answers…
After few weeks of devoting every spare minute to one of my pet projects – there it is! – version 0.1.0 of Web3scala – a library, that allows seamless integration with Ethereum blockchain, using Scala programming language.
Details can be found on web3scala.org and the library itself is available in Maven Central, as a dependency with following coordinates: “org.web3scala” % “core” % “0.1.0”.
Happy coding!
While reading a book on Blockchain recently (Daniel Drescher’s “Blockchain Basics”), i made following notes:
A. DEFINITION
Concepts and principles of a ledger
B. PROBLEM AREA
Concepts of ownership
C. TRANSACTIONS
D. SECURITY
Calculating hash values
Asymmetric cryptography
There are two keys: a white key and a black key. Together they form the pair of corresponding keys. The original message is encrypted with the black key, which yields cypher text represented by the black box containing white let- ters. The original message can also be encrypted with the second key, which yields different cypher text represented by the white box containing black letters. For didactical reasons, the colors of the boxes representing cypher text and the colors of the keys used to produce them are identical in order to highlight their relation: The black key yields black cypher text, while the white key produces white cypher text. Black cypher text can only be decrypted with the white key and vice versa. The trick to asymmetric cryptography is that you can never decrypt cypher text with the key that was used to create it.
E. DATA STRUCTURE
Simplified blockchain-data-structure containing four transactions
F. STORING DATA
G. DATA STORE PROTECTION
Hash puzzle required to be solved when adding a new block to the blockchain-data-structure
H. VERIFYING AND ADDING TRANSACTIONS
I. TRANSACTION HISTORY CHOICE
J. INTEGRITY
K. LIMITATIONS
L. OTHER TYPES OF BLOCKCHAIN
M. BLOCKCHAIN USAGE
N. FUTURE
O. SUMMARY
If you find the subject of Blockchain interesting and would like to get more in-depth understanding of it, i strongly encourage you to read Daniel Drescher’s “Blockchain Basics”.
Cheers!
I’ve been playing recently with ReactJS a bit, and was pleasantly surprised when seeing great changes, the JavaScript language has undergone, over the last c.a. 2 years.
This made me realize, that i need to study those changes in more detail, which is how this blog entry came to existence 🙂
According to Wikipedia, “ECMAScript (or ES) is a scripting-language specification, standardized by the European Computer Manufacturers Association. (…) JavaScript is the best-known implementation of ECMAScript since the standard was first published, with other well-known implementations including JScript and ActionScript” (anyone remembering the Flash platform authored by Macromedia?).
In June 2015, sixth edition of ECMAScript (ES6) was introduced, which later changed its name to ECMAScript 2015 (ES2015).
Among the design objectives, that the TC39 (Ecma Technical Committee 39) team defined for the new version of the language, were:
Some of the new constructs, that caught my attention:
1. let/const vs. var
In ES5, you declare variables via var. Such variables are function-scoped, their scopes are the innermost enclosing functions
In ES6, you can additionally declare variables via let and const. Such variables are block-scoped, their scopes are the innermost enclosing blocks.
let is roughly a block-scoped version of var.
const works like let, but creates variables whose values can’t be changed.
var num = 0;
if (num === 0) {
let localSpeed = 100;
var globalSpeed = 200;
for (let i = 0; i < 0; i++){
num += (localSpeed + globalSpeed) * 1;
}
console.log(typeof i); // undefined
}
console.log(typeof localSpeed); // undefined
console.log(typeof num); // number
console.log(typeof globalSpeed); // number
General advice by Dr. Axel Rauschmayer (author of Exploring ES6):
2. IIFEs vs. blocks
In ES5, you had to use a pattern called IIFE (Immediately-Invoked Function Expression) if you wanted to restrict the scope of a variable tmp to a block:
(function () { // open IIFE
var tmp = ···;
···
}()); // close IIFE
console.log(tmp); // ReferenceError
In ECMAScript 6, you can simply use a block and a let declaration (or a const declaration):
{ // open block
let tmp = ···;
···
} // close block
console.log(tmp); // ReferenceError
3. concatenating strings vs. template literals
In ES5, you put values into strings by concatenating those values and string fragments:
function printCoord(x, y) {
console.log('('+x+', '+y+')');
}
In ES6 you can use string interpolation via template literals:
function printCoord(x, y) {
console.log(`(${x}, ${y})`);
}
Template literals also help with representing multi-line strings.
4. function expressions vs. arrow functions
In ES5, such callbacks are relatively verbose:
var arr = [1, 2, 3];
var squares = arr.map(function (x) { return x * x });
In ES6, arrow functions are much more concise:
const arr = [1, 2, 3]; const squares = arr.map(x => x * x);
5. for vs. forEach() vs. for-of
Prior to ES5, you iterated over Arrays as follows:
var arr = ['a', 'b', 'c'];
for (var i=0; i<arr.length; i++) {
var elem = arr[i];
console.log(elem);
}
In ES5, you have the option of using the Array method forEach():
arr.forEach(function (elem) {
console.log(elem);
});
A for loop has the advantage that you can break from it, forEach() has the advantage of conciseness.
In ES6, the for-of loop combines both advantages:
const arr = ['a', 'b', 'c'];
for (const elem of arr) {
console.log(elem);
}
If you want both index and value of each array element, for-of has got you covered, too, via the new Array method entries() and destructuring:
for (const [index, elem] of arr.entries()) {
console.log(index+'. '+elem);
}
6. Handling multiple return values
A. via arrays
In ES5, you need an intermediate variable (matchObj in the example below), even if you are only interested in the groups:
var matchObj = /^(\d\d\d\d)-(\d\d)-(\d\d)$/.exec('2999-12-31');
var year = matchObj[1];
var month = matchObj[2];
var day = matchObj[3];
In ES6, destructuring makes this code simpler:
const [, year, month, day] = /^(\d\d\d\d)-(\d\d)-(\d\d)$/.exec('2999-12-31');
(The empty slot at the beginning of the Array pattern skips the Array element at index zero.)
B. via objects
In ES5, even if you are only interested in the properties of an object, you still need an intermediate variable (propDesc in the example below):
var obj = { foo: 123 };
var propDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, 'foo');
var writable = propDesc.writable;
var configurable = propDesc.configurable;
console.log(writable, configurable); // true true
In ES6, you can use destructuring:
const obj = { foo: 123 };
const {writable, configurable} = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, 'foo');
console.log(writable, configurable); // true true
7. Handling parameter default values
In ES5, you specify default values for parameters like this:
function foo(x, y) {
x = x || 0;
y = y || 0;
···
}
ES6 has nicer syntax:
function foo(x=0, y=0) {
···
}
8. Handling named parameters
A common way of naming parameters in JavaScript is via object literals (the so-called options object pattern):
selectEntries({ start: 0, end: -1 });
Two advantages of this approach are: Code becomes more self-descriptive and it is easier to omit arbitrary parameters.
In ES5, you can implement selectEntries() as follows:
function selectEntries(options) {
var start = options.start || 0;
var end = options.end || -1;
var step = options.step || 1;
···
}
In ES6, you can use destructuring in parameter definitions and the code becomes simpler:
function selectEntries({ start=0, end=-1, step=1 }) {
···
}
9. arguments vs. rest parameters
In ES5, if you want a function (or method) to accept an arbitrary number of arguments, you must use the special variable arguments:
function logAllArguments() {
for (var i=0; i<arguments.length; i++) {
console.log(arguments[i]);
}
}
In ES6, you can declare a rest parameter (args in the example below) via the …operator:
function logAllArguments(...args) {
for (const arg of args) {
console.log(arg);
}
}
Rest parameters are even nicer if you are only interested in trailing parameters:
function format(pattern, ...args) {
···
}
Handling this case in ES5 is clumsy:
function format(pattern) {
var args = [].slice.call(arguments, 1);
···
}
10. apply() vs. the spread operator (…)
In ES5, you turn arrays into parameters via apply().
ES6 has the spread operator for this purpose.
A. Math.max() example
ES5 – apply():
Math.max.apply(Math, [-1, 5, 11, 3])
ES6 – spread operator:
Math.max(...[-1, 5, 11, 3])
B. Array.prototype.push() example
ES5 – apply():
var arr1 = ['a', 'b']; var arr2 = ['c', 'd']; arr1.push.apply(arr1, arr2); // arr1 is now ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
ES6 – spread operator:
const arr1 = ['a', 'b']; const arr2 = ['c', 'd']; arr1.push(...arr2); // arr1 is now ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
11. concat() vs. the spread operator (…)
The spread operator can also (non-destructively) turn the contents of its operand into Array elements. That means that it becomes an alternative to the Array method concat().
ES5 – concat():
var arr1 = ['a', 'b']; var arr2 = ['c']; var arr3 = ['d', 'e']; console.log(arr1.concat(arr2, arr3)); // [ 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e' ]
ES6 – spread operator:
const arr1 = ['a', 'b']; const arr2 = ['c']; const arr3 = ['d', 'e']; console.log([...arr1, ...arr2, ...arr3]); // [ 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e' ]
12. function expressions in object literals vs. method definitions
In JavaScript, methods are properties whose values are functions.
In ES5 object literals, methods are created like other properties. The property values are provided via function expressions.
var obj = {
foo: function () {
···
},
bar: function () {
this.foo();
}, // trailing comma is legal in ES5
}
ES6 has method definitions, special syntax for creating methods:
const obj = {
foo() {
···
},
bar() {
this.foo();
},
}
13. constructors vs. classes
ES6 classes are mostly just more convenient syntax for constructor functions.
A. Base classes
In ES5, you implement constructor functions directly:
function Person(name) {
this.name = name;
}
Person.prototype.describe = function () {
return 'Person called '+this.name;
};
Note the compact syntax for method definitions – no keyword function needed.
Also note that there are no commas between the parts of a class
B. Derived classes
Subclassing is complicated in ES5, especially referring to super-constructors and super-properties.
This is the canonical way of creating a sub-constructor Employee of Person:
function Employee(name, title) {
Person.call(this, name); // super(name)
this.title = title;
}
Employee.prototype = Object.create(Person.prototype);
Employee.prototype.constructor = Employee;
Employee.prototype.describe = function () {
return Person.prototype.describe.call(this) // super.describe()
+ ' (' + this.title + ')';
};
ES6 has built-in support for subclassing, via the extends clause:
class Employee extends Person {
constructor(name, title) {
super(name);
this.title = title;
}
describe() {
return super.describe() + ' (' + this.title + ')';
}
}
14. custom error constructors vs. subclasses of Error
In ES5, it is impossible to subclass the built-in constructor for exceptions, Error.
The following code shows a work-around that gives the constructor MyError important features such as a stack trace:
function MyError() {
var superInstance = Error.apply(null, arguments); // Use Error as a function
copyOwnPropertiesFrom(this, superInstance);
}
MyError.prototype = Object.create(Error.prototype);
MyError.prototype.constructor = MyError;
function copyOwnPropertiesFrom(target, source) {
Object.getOwnPropertyNames(source).forEach(function(propKey) {
var desc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(source, propKey);
Object.defineProperty(target, propKey, desc);
});
return target;
};
In ES6, all built-in constructors can be subclassed, which is why the following code achieves what the ES5 code can only simulate:
class MyError extends Error {
}
15. objects vs. Maps
Using the language construct object as a map from strings to arbitrary values (a data structure) has always been a makeshift solution in JavaScript. The safest way to do so is by creating an object whose prototype is null. Then you still have to ensure that no key is ever the string ‘__proto__’, because that property key triggers special functionality in many JavaScript engines.
The following ES5 code contains the function countWords that uses the object dictas a map:
var dict = Object.create(null);
function countWords(word) {
var escapedWord = escapeKey(word);
if (escapedWord in dict) {
dict[escapedWord]++;
} else {
dict[escapedWord] = 1;
}
}
function escapeKey(key) {
if (key.indexOf('__proto__') === 0) {
return key+'%';
} else {
return key;
}
}
In ES6, you can use the built-in data structure Map and don’t have to escape keys. As a downside, incrementing values inside Maps is less convenient.
const map = new Map();
function countWords(word) {
const count = map.get(word) || 0;
map.set(word, count + 1);
}
Another benefit of Maps is that you can use arbitrary values as keys, not just strings.
16. New string methods
A. indexOf vs. startsWith
if (str.indexOf('x') === 0) {} // ES5
if (str.startsWith('x')) {} // ES6
B. indexOf vs. endsWith
function endsWith(str, suffix) { // ES5
var index = str.indexOf(suffix);
return index >= 0 && index === str.length-suffix.length;
}
str.endsWith(suffix); // ES6
C. indexOf vs. includes
if (str.indexOf('x') >= 0) {} // ES5
if (str.includes('x')) {} // ES6
D. join vs. repeat (the ES5 way of repeating a string is more of a hack):
new Array(3+1).join('#') // ES5
'#'.repeat(3) // ES6
17. New Array methods
A. Array.prototype.indexOf vs. Array.prototype.findIndex
The latter can be used to find NaN, which the former can’t detect:
const arr = ['a', NaN]; arr.indexOf(NaN); // -1 arr.findIndex(x => Number.isNaN(x)); // 1
As an aside, the new Number.isNaN() provides a safe way to detect NaN (because it doesn’t coerce non-numbers to numbers):
isNaN('abc') // true
Number.isNaN('abc') // false
B. Array.prototype.slice() vs. Array.from() (or the spread operator)
In ES5, Array.prototype.slice() was used to convert Array-like objects to Arrays. In ES6, you have Array.from():
var arr1 = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments); // ES5 const arr2 = Array.from(arguments); // ES6
If a value is iterable (as all Array-like DOM data structure are by now), you can also use the spread operator (…) to convert it to an Array:
const arr1 = [...'abc']; // ['a', 'b', 'c']
const arr2 = [...new Set().add('a').add('b')]; // ['a', 'b']
C. apply() vs. Array.prototype.fill()
In ES5, you can use apply(), as a hack, to create in Array of arbitrary length that is filled with undefined:
// Same as Array(undefined, undefined) var arr1 = Array.apply(null, new Array(2)); // [undefined, undefined]
In ES6, fill() is a simpler alternative:
const arr2 = new Array(2).fill(undefined); // [undefined, undefined]
fill() is even more convenient if you want to create an Array that is filled with an arbitrary value:
// ES5
var arr3 = Array.apply(null, new Array(2)).map(function (x) { return 'x' }); // ['x', 'x']
// ES6
const arr4 = new Array(2).fill(‘x’); // ['x', 'x']
fill() replaces all Array elements with the given value. Holes are treated as if they were elements.
18. CommonJS modules vs. ES6 modules
Even in ES5, module systems based on either AMD syntax or CommonJS syntax have mostly replaced hand-written solutions such as the revealing module pattern.
ES6 has built-in support for modules. Alas, no JavaScript engine supports them natively, yet. But tools such as browserify, webpack or jspm let you use ES6 syntax to create modules, making the code you write future-proof.
A. Multiple exports in CommonJS
//------ lib.js ------
var sqrt = Math.sqrt;
function square(x) {
return x * x;
}
function diag(x, y) {
return sqrt(square(x) + square(y));
}
module.exports = {
sqrt: sqrt,
square: square,
diag: diag,
};
//------ main1.js ------
var square = require('lib').square;
var diag = require('lib').diag;
console.log(square(11)); // 121
console.log(diag(4, 3)); // 5
Alternatively, you can import the whole module as an object and access square and diag via it:
//------ main2.js ------
var lib = require('lib');
console.log(lib.square(11)); // 121
console.log(lib.diag(4, 3)); // 5
B. Multiple exports in ES6
In ES6, multiple exports are called named exports and handled like this:
//------ lib.js ------
export const sqrt = Math.sqrt;
export function square(x) {
return x * x;
}
export function diag(x, y) {
return sqrt(square(x) + square(y));
}
//------ main1.js ------
import { square, diag } from 'lib';
console.log(square(11)); // 121
console.log(diag(4, 3)); // 5
The syntax for importing modules as objects looks as follows (line A):
//------ main2.js ------ import * as lib from 'lib'; // (A) console.log(lib.square(11)); // 121 console.log(lib.diag(4, 3)); // 5
C. Single exports in CommonJS
Node.js extends CommonJS and lets you export single values from modules, via module.exports:
//------ myFunc.js ------
module.exports = function () { ··· };
//------ main1.js ------
var myFunc = require('myFunc');
myFunc();
D. Single exports in ES6
In ES6, the same thing is done via a so-called default export (declared via export default):
//------ myFunc.js ------
export default function () { ··· } // no semicolon!
//------ main1.js ------
import myFunc from 'myFunc';
myFunc();
That would be it,
Cheers!
Resources:
me@mariuszprzydatek.com
mariuszprzydatek.com 